condensed: death and the afterlife

new testament foundations

jesus’ resurrection and implications

the resurrection was important to the nt writers but there is no explanation of the afterlife. they agree on three things:

• jesus’ death and resurrection mark the foundation of christianity
• jesus’ resurrection was a moment of hope over despair
• god acted in a mysterious and spectacular way

these ideas have developed and gained emphasis.

ambiguities

jesus’ teaching on the afterlife was rooted in the jewish eschatology of the pharisees. it came from greek ideas but jesus taught that the emphasis was in a new order:

• his life was a sacrifice for sin
• his death would prompt god to establish a new order
• he would be raised up and his followers would have a place in heaven

these teachings are still vague and different views have developed.

the time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of god has come near. – mark 1:14

there are some standing here who will not taste death until they see that the kingdom of god has come with power. – mark 9:1

but if it is by the finger of god that i cast out demons, then the kingdom of god has come to you. -luke 11:20

some passages suggest early christians thought it was the edge of a new era, expecting jesus’ return. the greek word for this return is parousia. this role of this is to judge and select those who lived well to live in the restored and renewed world.

jesus parables describe the new world in metaphors of weddings, feasts and harvest but the main descriptions are in the book of revelation.

then i saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and first earth had passed away, and the sea was no more. and i saw the holy city, new jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from god.. – book of revelation 21:1-4

the kingdom of god

jesus’ teachings on this served several purposes depending on interpretation.

as a present moral and spiritual state

jesus’ teaching was a call for moral and spiritual reform. he presents the kingdom as already here, which is known as ‘inaugurated eschatology’. jesus’ miracles are signs of the present new age. he emphasises the nowness as a time to overcome prejudice and discrimination and failings of contemporary religious practices.

as a future redeemed state

his teachings it traditional too, saying the righteous will live with god. st paul argued jesus’ life resurrection was a sign of the restored world in which humans can see and know god. before christ they could only see through a ‘dark glass’ but now clearly. others say it is a future state of perfection.

punishment and justice

the new testament says the wicked prosper now but will be punished, while the good suffer now and will be rewarded. as justice only the good will enter heaven. matthew refers to hades/gehenna, hell, as a place of torment and suffering. sheol is were souls await judgement. these are combined to warn the wicked of hell as fire and lament, as revelation refers to the wicked being ‘thrown into the lake of fire’.

the story of the rich man and lazarus as told by jesus shows this. a rich man ignores lazarus, a beggar, and lives a rich life. when they die lazarus is in heaven and the rich man in hell. he can see lazarus, and begs him to ‘dip the tip of his finger in water and cool’ his tongue. this attitude shows the rich man’s faults. abraham replies ‘he is comforted here, and you are in agony’.

no account of lazarus’ moral character is given but we assume he lived a good live. the story challenged beliefs and said the wicked will receive their justice in the next life.

four problems

the delay of parousia

early generations hoped for jesus’ return and the arrival of god’s kingdom, but it never happened so eschatology developed:

• people recalled jesus saying not to calculate when judgement would come. ‘about that day and hour no one knows…only the father‘
• reviewing parables, there was a theme of delay, requiring moral vigilance until his return like a ‘thief in the night’

place

another problem is where it will be, and if it is the same as heaven. dante’s vision and revelation hints it will be a continuation of this world.

time and judgement

the exact moment is unknown, but nt writers suggest personal judgement happens immediately after death is more important. jesus says to the robber crucified with him, ‘today you will be with me in paradise’. john’s gospel suggests it is personal and ongoing.

there is also millenarianism, the belief that jesus will return to rule for 1000 years before final judgement. this has been popular at particularly politically difficult times. some have even encouraged the environmental destruction to hasten the process. now it is accepted that it is the church’s role until christ’s return.

purgatory

although not in the bible, it is a widely accepted idea that people can continue to seek forgiveness before final judgement. it evolved for fairness but also for the ambiguity of judgement.

the parable of the sheep and goats

matthew 25 focuses on god’s judgement before the kingdom. it uses farming metaphors: sheep and goats graze together and separate at night. sheep are worth more so they are more secure. the parable suggests moral life is not an advantage but is rewarded.

• a righteous life is not enough alone, it needs a pursuit of justice for the marginalised
• those who are rewarded are not christians but those who pursed justice. god rewards those of good will.
• the list of good works shows jesus’ own ministry for the sick and poor
• the phrase ‘just as you did it to one of the least of those…you did it to me’ show the obligation to help everyone, especially the least attractive in society

developments in christian eschatological teaching

according to j.n.d kelly, early eschatology focused on parousia, resurrection, judgement and new order. but they were ‘held together in a naive, unreflective fashion with little or no attempt to work out their implications’.

the problems still exist and must be contemporarily reworked. in considering the physicality or spirituality of it all, they ask:

• are hell and heaven eternal?
• is heaven just the transformation of creation?
• is purgatory something that everyone goes through?
• when does god’s judgement take place?

hell

hell is now the least accepted doctrine, partly because it has been seen too literally and contradicts the idea of a loving god.

origen argues hell is an interior anguish from being apart from god. gregory of nyssa argues that judgement is a result of guilty conscience when faced with jesus.

traditionall judgement is universal and punishment is eternal, because ti gives reasons for faith and repentance. it doesnt show god as unloving, but as a god of grace and justice; the wicked must be punished or god’s goodness is doubtable.

dante’s version of hell

dante’s vision is shown in divine comedy. he writes that it is a dysfunctional state created at jesus’ death, the opposite of heaven. it is irrational and hopeless. there are nine circles characterised by the virtues, with each sin matched with punishment. lucifer’s throne is in the ninth circle, with judas and brutus and cassius.

hell as symbol of alienation

for many, dante’s hell shows the consequences of our actions and how they show us. there is a problem, though, with hell-based language. for Paul Tillich, ‘heaven and hell…[are]…metaphors for the polar ultimates in the experience of the divine’. hell is a psychological state of a life without god. it is not a place,

jean paul sartre wrote a play, ‘huis clos’, showing three people in a room ‘waiting’ for hell but eventually realise that living with themselves and each other is the true torment.

hell as eternal separation

catholicism teaches that hell is eternal for mortal sinners. hell is the choice of a person, not god. it is self-exclusion. this is what the catechism writes. hell is used to urge people to use freedom wisely and to do good. hell is reserved for those who consistently reject good.

purgatory and intermediate states

there is no clear idea of this in the nt, but it is part of accepted doctrine for a chance of repentance:

• foretaste of heaven and hell: ambrose considered it a place where you get a taste of heaven and hell before judgement.
• probationary school: origen argues it is a probationary school for souls to develop and perfect themselves.
• redemption for the whole creation: greegory of nyssa argued that it has a purifying purpose, completing god’s purpose of redeeming and restoring creation

dante’s vision of purgatory

dante says purgatory is a place where those who believed in christ and repented before death can purify themselves of sin before heaven. he describes it as a soul moving up a mountain, driven by love.

catholic teaching on purgatory

all who die in God’s grace and friendship, but still die imperfectly purified… after death they undergo purification… to enter the joy of heaven

the catechism

the catholic church teaches a lack of specific teaching, but an idea such as cleansing by fire suggest some sins can be forgiven now, some later. purgatory is an interim state of a soul’s journey. it explains why they pray for the souls of the dead to be free from sin.

john hick on the intermediate state

lack of scriptural support has led to a focus on judgement, heaven and hell, but recent theologians have seen the value of purgatory as supported by origen and gregory of nyssa, because morally it makes sense. john hick argues the ‘gap between the individual’s imperfection…and the perfect heavenly state…has to be bridged’. he urges us to think of the afterlife as part of the soul-making process.

heaven

the ultimate state when humans see god face to face. pure knowledge, lack of sin and fullness of joy. it is restoration of creation. but is it a state of life after death or just this world perfected? can non-humans enter? are all humans capable?

dante’s vision of heaven

dante says ‘to go beyond the human cannot be put into words’. the heavenly soul yearns for ultimate good and harmony. the end of the journey is knowledge and illumination through god. there are ten levels, and each soul finds its resting place and degree of bliss.

catholic teaching on the beatific vision

haven is not in time and space. catholic teaching is thus:

the perfect life with the most holy trinity – this communion of life and love with the trinity , with the virgin mary, the angels and all the blessed – is called heaven.

catechism

a ‘state of supreme happiness’ where god reveals himself. this is the beatific vision or blessed state of everlasting bliss. it is a community of immortal souls obedient to god’s will.

election

then he will send out the angels, and gather his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven.

– mark 13:27

the word elect in the nt means choice and refers to god’s choice of who gets eternal life. but who are the elect? why? when were they chosen?

limited and unlimited election

closely associated with predestination. both used to explain why some will not have eternal life. it is also about the nature of god and grace, while the two clash.

• limited election: heaven for those whom god has chosen with grace and judged as righteous. christ only died for the sins of the elect.
• unlimited election: the god of love’s call for all people to salvation, jesus died for everyone’s sins.

Alister McGrath notes that election and predestination are ‘often regarded as one of the most enigmatic and puzzling aspects of the Christian theology’.

election and predestination

this idea comes from augustine, and developed as doctrine. augustine argued that even faith is not enough to receive eternal salvation. the will is too weakened by the fall. god’s grace is the key, and is freely given. although god calls all people to salvation, he knows only the elect will receive it.

single and double predestination

• single predestination: god elects only those who will enter heaven.
• double predestination: god elects those who will enter heaven and condemns the rest to hell.

these two seem the same if hell is the only option apart from heaven, or if not, what happens to the rest?

there is further division of when:

• antelapsarian decree: decreed at the moment of creation, before the fall
• postlapsarian decree: decreed after the fall.

john calvin and calvinism

although he developed this apart from augustine, his followers pushed it further to a stronger limited election.

calvinism is associated with double predestination and set out thus:

some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life and others foreordained to everlasting death.

westminster confession of faith

calvin’s own position was weaker, arguing:

• god’s will is hidden and we can’t presume what will happen
• what god reveals takes into account limited human knowledge
• when st pauk says god chooses all people, he means all kind of people
• christians have a duty to preach the gospel to all kinds of people
• both elect and non-elect must act morally

thomas aquinas and catholicism

aquinas’ interpretation of augustine led the catholic church to teach single predestination. the wicked elect themselves for hell.

god predestines no one to go to hell; for this, a wilful turning away from god is necessary and persistence in it until the end

the catechism

the elect are chosen by god because he knows they will achieve their good end. predestination can, however, diminish moral responsibility and validity of a moral life.

election and universalism

the notion of universalism of apokatastasis, is that hell is not eternal and the goal of the cosmos is to return to a pre-fall state.

but god’s goodness and love requires all humans to achieve salvation and if humans have free will, they must all be able to achieve salvation.

what makes it attractive is that it covers all faith positions, which is more fair.

john hick

universalism is attractive to liberals, because the god of judgement and the god of jesus do not line up. the nt focuses on reconciliation. what is the point of eternal punishment? if life is a spiritual education, hell makes more sense as part of that journey.

karl barth

a calvinist, not strictly universalist, but contributes to understanding. he argued against the simplistic idea of double predestination. instead he argues it is an act of god from general to particular.

• as subject and elector. god in christ elects to redeem all fallen humanity by overcoming death
• as object and elector. god in christ reveals his friendliness towards humans by entering into its fallen state and dying on the cross

same as calvin, barth says it is not up to humans to speculate on god’s will. this leads to the conclusion that barth may have rejected universalism as salvation but allowed inclusivism.

i don’t believe in universalism, but i do believe in christ, the reconciler for all.

karl barth